Forest and forestry – a history look back

Our forests are a relatively young ecosystem compared with other ecosystems on Earth. About 10,000 years ago, Sweden was covered by a kilometer-thick ice sheet, and it was only when the ice melted that the forest could begin to emerge. All plant and animal species present in Sweden today migrated here following the last ice age.

Swedish forests remained untouched by humans for a long time. Instead, the forest landscape was shaped by natural disturbances such as wildfires and storms. Almost all Swedish forests have been influenced by fires, with many forests burning several times every century. This had a profound impact on the development of the forest and its flora and fauna.

Sparse pine forest dominated

Forest fires determined, for instance, the types of tree species that grew in the forest. Spruces, which have thin bark and branches close to the ground, are not well-adapted to survive fires, so they did not grow very old. Pines, on the other hand, were favored because they are specialists at surviving fires thanks to their thick bark and high branches. This resulted in landscapes dominated by sparse  pine forests, with a mix of large and small pines. There were also plenty of deciduous trees, as these regenerate easily after a forest fire.

All species that thrive in bright and sunny environments flourished. Species that benefit from darker and more humid conditions – characteristics of a spruce forest – had a tougher time and had to rely on areas where fires did not gain a foothold.

Fires also ensured that there was plenty of dead wood in the forests, as many trees died when fires swept through. The dead wood provided food and habitats for flora and fauna.

When people began to use the forest for timber purposes, they did so primarily to meet household consumption needs for firewood, construction timber, etc. But with the growth of iron production during the 17th and 18th centuries, the demand for wood increased.

The sawmill industry in northern Sweden began to take shape by the mid-1800s. Saw logs were harvested and floated down large watercourses to the coast. Over time, harvesting advanced farther inland until it reached the most inaccessible forests. By the late 1800s, there were hardly any untouched forests left in northern Sweden.

During the late 19th century people started develop effective fire-fighting methods, which radically changed the conditions in the forest. Pine and deciduous trees lost their competitive advantage and fired-razed areas, where the forest self-regenerates with pine and deciduous trees, became rare. Spruce, on the other hand, benefited from the change and gradually took over. The rarity of fires also affected everything from insects and birds to herbs, lichens, and mosses.

Methods for managing and harvesting forests have varied over time. For a long time, the only trees harvested were those that achieved a certain thickness and yielded substantial saw logs, a practice known as selective cutting (or diameter-limit cutting). It was believed that the forest would  regenerate naturally, but this proved to take a very long time. New harvests were also often  conducted within just a few decades, resulting in the removal of increasingly slender trees. The forests became sparser and grew poorly.

Selection system cutting – similar to selective cutting – began to be used in the 1800s. With this method, large trees were harvested every ten to twenty years and regeneration occurred naturally. However, the method was not suitable for species such as pine and deciduous trees that require light conditions to establish themselves. A forest managed with selection system cutting always has trees of all heights and more small trees than  large ones.

But selection system forestry also proved to be ineffective, as timber extraction was often at too high a level or done at too short intervals, which resulted in sparse forests and low growth. Selective cutting and selection system cutting are both now classified as continuous cover forestry methods.

In addition to these methods, clear-felling forestry began to be adopted in Sweden on a small scale, inspired by Germany.

The forests in northern Sweden were heavily depleted and reforestation was poor at the beginning of the last century. The picture shows a harvested area in 1935, were the forest was diameter-limit cut in 1876 and 1902.

In 1903 Sweden established its first modern forestry law, considered the first of its kind in the world. It had become obvious that both prudent use and reforestation were required for the country to maintain the benefits of its forest resource. The law therefore mandated
reforestation after harvest, a requirement that remains in force today.

Continuous cover methods were gradually phased out due to the fact that they deplete forests. After nearly a century of dimensional felling, selection system cutting, and some degree of clear-felling, by the early 1950s a large proportion of forests were basically clear-felled while older forests were sparse and damaged.

Research has shown that by the late 1940s, around 40 percent of company- and state-owned forests in southern Norrland had been clear-felled at some point since the early 1900s.

Optimizing growth

After World War II, clearc-felling became the predominant method for harvesting and regenerating forests. This means felling all trees in an area at the same time, followed by regeneration – primarily through planting.

With clear-felling, the forest is managed in a cycle with various phases: from planting to pre-commercial thinning, thinning, and regeneration felling – and then planting again. This optimizes  growth in the forest landscape.

SCA and other large forest companies focused initially on harvesting the forests that were sparse and growing poorly. By ensuring that new forests are established quickly, the forest industry secure a reliable and long-term supply of wood raw materials.

During this time and through the late 1980s, clear-felling often resulted in large and completely bare harvested areas, as nearly no trees were left standing. Some clear-felled areas in company- and state-owned forests covered several hundred hectares. The new forests were rich in timber but poor in variation and comprised mainly of trees of the same age.

In the late 1970s, there was greater awareness that some species are unable to survive forestry methods that result in large bare clear-felled areas. SCA and other forest companies began to take action based on this. They also realized that post-harvest replanting on its own was insufficient, and therefore introduced retention forestry methods, albeit on a small scale.

Increased awareness of environmental issues paved the way for Sweden’s new forest policy, which took effect in 1994. The new policy, which remains in force to this day, places equal value on wood production and environmental considerations.

Research also showed the necessity of leaving some areas unharvested. Accordingly, during the 1990s forest companies began to leave forests as voluntarily set-asides; forests that were old and had the greatest nature consideration values. These voluntary set-asides are not used for wood production.

In the mid-1990s, the first certification systems for Swedish forestry were developed in collaboration with, among others, reindeer husbandry and environmental organizations. This contributes to developing forestry work with nature consideration.

SCA conducted biodiversity surveys across its entire forest holdings and continued to set aside forests. We also began conducting prescribed burns to mimic natural conditions.

Integrating nature values

Swedish forestry begin increasingly integrate nature values, aiming to reduce the negative impact associated with forestry practices. The initial steps involved creating high stumps and preserving willows and large aspens, which are essential for many species.

As more knowledge has been acquired, additional measures have been implemented, such as creating dead wood, leaving buffer zones, preserving tree groups, and protecting old pines.

Certified forestry

SCA's forestry operations in Sweden have been certified according to FSC^® (FSC^® C004466) since 1999 and PEFC (PEFC/05-23-131) since 2011. This means we commit to their guidelines for responsible forestry. In many cases, our commitments go beyond both legal requirements and the standards of these certifications. For example, we voluntarily set aside a larger proportion of conservation areas.

You can read more about our certified forestry here

A lot has happened since the turn of the millennium in terms of forestry, environmental considerations, and the view of the forest’s significance for the climate.

Since the early 2000s, we have been incorporating more nature values into production forests, aiming to reduce the negative impact of forestry. As conservation efforts have evolved, nature consideration has become a natural part of all forestry operations—not just during regeneration harvesting.

Naturally, much else has also changed in forestry. For example, new drainage, the use of chemical pesticides, and intensive soil preparation have largely ceased. At the same time, successful development work has provided us with refined plants that grow better, and the industry conducts various collaborative projects to develop more sustainable forest machinery and improve working conditions in the forest.

The forest’s role in climate efforts

Awareness of the forest’s importance for climate benefits has also increased. Growing forests and products made from renewable forest raw materials play a crucial role in combating climate change. When the trees in our forests grow, they absorb carbon dioxide, using it in photosynthesis to build wood fibers. The raw materials from the forest are then transformed into a range of products that replace those with a larger carbon footprint. Timber can replace concrete, paper can replace plastic, and biofuels can replace fossil fuels. This allows oil and coal to remain underground.

We manage our forests to ensure that the standing timber volume is continuously increasing. This means that the trees bind more carbon each year, and in this way, the forest contributes to combating climate change. Forestry also works to reduce fossil dependence, with the electrification of heavy forestry transport being an important part.

We continue to develop our forestry and conservation efforts in line with new research and emerging knowledge.